i) isinstance()
Used to check if an object is an instance of a specific class.
Example:
>>> isinstance(p, Point) True
This returns True if p is an instance of the Point class.
ii) hasattr()
Used to check if an object has a specific attribute.
Example:
>>> hasattr(p, 'x') True >>> hasattr(p, 'z') False
Checks whether the attribute 'x' or 'z' exists in object p.
iii) copy.copy
Performs a shallow copy of an object. Copies the object but not the embedded objects.
Example:
>>> import copy >>> p2 = copy.copy(p1) >>> p1 is p2 False
p1 and p2 are different objects, but p2 is a shallow copy of p1.
iv) copy.deepcopy
Performs a deep copy of an object. Copies both the object and all objects it refers to.
Example:
>>> box3 = copy.deepcopy(box) >>> box3 is box False >>> box3.corner is box.corner False
box3 and box are completely independent after deep copy.